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▼Active Proteins
AAA Biotech also known as AAA Bio or AAABio provides a variety of high-quality recombinant and natural/native proteins that are proven to work in a wide range of experiments. Explore our products to find the active protein that best fits your needs or experimental model.
Viewing 2200-2250 of 2583 product results
WB (Western Blot)
(Figure 3. Western BlotSample: Recombinant CLCA1, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human CLCA1 Ab)
Chloride Channel Accessory 1 (CLCA1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148124)
Full Name
Active Chloride Channel Accessory 1 (CLCA1)
Gene Names
CLCA1; CACC; GOB5; CACC1; CLCRG1; CaCC-1; hCLCA1; hCaCC-1
Applications
Invitro Assay, Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>98%
Pricing
Application Data
Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148144)
Full Name
Active Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2)
Gene Names
JAK2; JTK10; THCYT3
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
Neuraminidase (NEU), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148147)
Full Name
Active Neuraminidase (NEU)
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
Application Data
Fibronectin (FN), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148157)
Full Name
Active Fibronectin (FN)
Gene Names
FN1; FN; CIG; FNZ; MSF; ED-B; FINC; GFND; LETS; GFND2; SMDCF
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
Interferon Gamma (IFNg), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148158)
Full Name
Active Interferon Gamma (IFNg)
Reactivity
Guinea Pig
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148161)
Full Name
Active Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF)
Gene Names
LIF; CDF; DIA; HILDA; MLPLI
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 95%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant PoN2, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human PoN2 Ab)
Paraoxonase 2 (PoN2), Active Protein (Cat# AAA147872)
Full Name
Active Paraoxonase 2 (PoN2)
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>98%
Pricing
SDS_PAGE
(Figure 3. SDS-PAGESample: Active recombinant SPC, Mouse)
Surfactant Associated Protein C (SPC), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149247)
Full Name
Active Surfactant Associated Protein C (SPC)
Gene Names
Sftpc; SP5; SPC; SP-C; Sftp2; Bricd6; Sftp-2; pro-SpC
Reactivity
Mus musculus (Mouse)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>98%
Pricing
Activity
(Creatine Kinase, Brain (CKB) consists of a homodimer of two identical brain-type CK-B subunits. CKB is a cytoplasmic enzyme involved in cellular energy homeostasis, with certain fractions of the enzyme being bound to cell membranes, ATPases, and a variety of ATP-requiring enzymes in the cell. The protein reversibly catalyzes the transfer of "energy-rich" phosphate between ATP and creatine or between phospho-creatine (PCr) and ADP. Besides, Fusion (FUS) has been identified as an interactor of CKB, thus a binding ELISA assay was conducted to detect the interaction of recombinant human CKB and recombinant human FUS. Briefly, CKB were diluted serially in PBS, with 0.01% BSA (pH 7.4). Duplicate samples of 100uL were then transferred to FUS-coated microtiter wells and incubated for 2h at 37°C. Wells were washed with PBST and incubated for 1h with anti-CKB pAb, then aspirated and washed 3 times. After incubation with HRP labelled secondary antibody, wells were aspirated and washed 3 times.With the addition of substrate solution, wells were incubated 15-25 minutes at 37°C. Finally, add 50uL stop solution to the wells and read at 450nm immediately. The binding activity of CKB and FUS was shown in Figure 1, and this effect was in a dose dependent manner.)
Creatine Kinase, Brain (CKB), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149256)
Full Name
Active Creatine Kinase, Brain (CKB)
Gene Names
CKB; BCK; B-CK; CKBB; CPK-B; HEL-211; HEL-S-29
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant C1qA, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human C1qA Ab)
Complement Component 1, Q Subcomponent A (C1qA), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149262)
Full Name
Active Complement Component 1, Q Subcomponent A (C1qA)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>90%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Figure 3. Western Blot Sample: Recombinant DHODH, Human; Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human DHODH Ab)
Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase (DHODH), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149265)
Full Name
Active Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase (DHODH)
Gene Names
DHODH; URA1; POADS; DHOdehase
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>92%
Pricing
SDS_PAGE
(Figure 3. SDS-PAGE Sample: Active recombinant WNT5A, Rat)
Wingless Type MMTV Integration Site Family, Member 5A (WNT5A), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149267)
Full Name
Active Wingless Type MMTV Integration Site Family, Member 5A (WNT5A)
Reactivity
Rattus norvegicus (Rat)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
SDS-PAGE
Insulin Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 3 (IGFBP3), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149226)
Full Name
Active Insulin Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 3 (IGFBP3)
Gene Names
IGFBP3; IBP3; BP-53
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Bioactivity
(High Mobility Group Protein 1 (HMG1), also known as high mobility group box 1 proteinbelongs to high mobility group and contains HMG-box domain. HMG1 is one of the most important chromatin proteins. This nuclear protein organizes the DNA and regulates transcription. It supports transcription of many genes in interactions with many transcription factors. HMGB1 is secreted by immune cells (like macrophages, monocytes and dendritic cells) through leaderless secretory pathway. Activated macrophages and monocytes secrete HMGB1 as a cytokine mediator of Inflammation. Besides, Tumor Protein p53 (TP53) has been identified as an interactor of HMG1, thus a binding ELISA assay was conducted to detect the interaction of recombinant human HMG1 and recombinant human TP53. Briefly, HMG1 were diluted serially in PBS, with 0.01% BSA (pH 7.4). Duplicate samples of 100uL were then transferred to TP53-coated microtiter wells and incubated for 2h at 37°C. Wells were washed with PBST and incubated for 1h with anti-HMG1 pAb, then aspirated and washed 3 times. After incubation with HRP labelled secondary antibody, wells were aspirated and washed 3 times. With the addition of substrate solution, wells were incubated 15-25 minutes at 37°C. Finally, add 50uL stop solution to the wells and read at 450nm immediately. The binding activity of HMG1 and TP53 was shown in Figure 1, and this effect was in a dose dependent manner.)
High Mobility Group Protein 1 (HMG1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149231)
Full Name
Active High Mobility Group Protein 1 (HMG1)
Gene Names
HMGB1; HMG1; HMG3; HMG-1; SBP-1
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
SDS-PAGE
Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149236)
Full Name
Active Fibroblast Growth Factor 2, Basic (FGF2)
Gene Names
FGF2; BFGF; FGF-2; HBGF-2
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
SDS_PAGE
(Figure 3. SDS-PAGESample: Active recombinant CAM, Human)
Calmodulin (CAM), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149238)
Full Name
Active Calmodulin (CAM)
Gene Names
CALM1; caM; CAM2; CAM3; CAMB; CAMC; CAMI; PHKD; CPVT4; DD132; LQT14; CALML2; CAMIII
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>92%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant LTF, Human; Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human LTF Ab)
Lactoferrin (LTF), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149239)
Full Name
Active Lactoferrin (LTF)
Gene Names
LTF; LF; HLF2; GIG12; HEL110
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Western Blot
Purity
>95%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant DPP4, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human DPP4 Ab)
Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP4), Active Protein (Cat# AAA149244)
Full Name
Active Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP4)
Gene Names
DPP4; CD26; ADABP; ADCP2; DPPIV; TP103
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Activity Assay
Purity
>90%
Pricing
Application Data
Endothelin 1 (EDN1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148173)
Full Name
Active Endothelin 1 (EDN1)
Gene Names
Edn1; Et1
Reactivity
Rat
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 95%
Pricing
Application Data
Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148178)
Full Name
Active Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23)
Reactivity
Mouse
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant TNFRSF12A, Human; Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human TNFRSF12A Ab)
Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 12A (TNFRSF12A), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148180)
Full Name
Active Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 12A (TNFRSF12A)
Gene Names
TNFRSF12A; FN14; CD266; TWEAKR
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>85%
Pricing
Application Data
5'-Nucleotidase, Ecto (NT5E), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148190)
Full Name
Active 5'-Nucleotidase, Ecto (NT5E)
Gene Names
NT5E; NT; eN; NT5; NTE; eNT; CD73; E5NT; CALJA
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
Caspase 1 (CASP1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148192)
Full Name
Active Caspase 1 (CASP1)
Gene Names
Casp1; Ice; Il1bc
Reactivity
Rat
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 95%
Pricing
Application Data
Golgi Protein 73 (GP73), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148195)
Full Name
Active Golgi Protein 73 (GP73)
Gene Names
Golm1; GP73; Golph2; AW125446; PSEC0257; 2310001L02Rik; D030064E01Rik
Reactivity
Mouse
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
Application Data
Suppressors Of Cytokine Signaling 3 (SOCS3), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148196)
Full Name
Active Suppressors Of Cytokine Signaling 3 (SOCS3)
Gene Names
Socs3; Cis3; Ef10; Ssi3; Cish3; EF-10; SSI-3
Reactivity
Mouse
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
Application Data
Coagulation Factor VII (F7), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148198)
Full Name
Active Coagulation Factor VII (F7)
Reactivity
Rat
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 95%
Pricing
Application Data
Calpain 1, Large Subunit (CAPN1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148200)
Full Name
Active Calpain 1, Large Subunit (CAPN1)
Reactivity
Rat
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
Adenine Phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148201)
Full Name
Active Adenine Phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT)
Gene Names
APRT; AMP; APRTD
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Western BlotSample: Recombinant MDM2, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human MDM2 Ab)
Mdm2 p53 Binding Protein Homolog (MDM2), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148216)
Full Name
Active Mdm2 p53 Binding Protein Homolog (MDM2)
Gene Names
MDM2; HDMX; hdm2; ACTFS
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
Application Data
Regenerating Islet Derived Protein 3 Beta (REG3b), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148217)
Full Name
Active Regenerating Islet Derived Protein 3 Beta (REG3b)
Gene Names
Reg3b; HIP; Pap; PAP1; REG-III
Reactivity
Mouse
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Figure 4. Western BlotSample: Recombinant SEMA3A, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human SEMA3A Ab)
Semaphorin 3A (SEMA3A), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148218)
Full Name
Active Semaphorin 3A (SEMA3A)
Gene Names
SEMA3A; HH16; SemD; COLL1; SEMA1; SEMAD; SEMAL; coll-1; Hsema-I; SEMAIII; Hsema-III
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>92%
Pricing
Application Data
Wingless Type MMTV Integration Site Family, Member 5A (WNT5A), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148219)
Full Name
Active Wingless Type MMTV Integration Site Family, Member 5A (WNT5A)
Gene Names
Wnt5a; Wnt-5a; 8030457G12Rik
Reactivity
Mouse
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 95%
Pricing
SDS-PAGE
Interleukin 17D (IL17D), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148227)
Full Name
Active Interleukin 17D (IL17D)
Gene Names
IL17D; IL-17D
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Sample: Recombinant IL1RA, Human;Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Human IL1RA Ab)
Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist (IL1RA), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148229)
Full Name
Active Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist (IL1RA)
Gene Names
IL1RN; DIRA; IRAP; IL1F3; IL1RA; MVCD4; IL-1RN; IL-1ra; IL-1ra3; ICIL-1RA
Reactivity
Homo sapiens (Human)
Applications
Invitro Assay, Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Figure 4. Western BlotSample: Recombinant IL1RA, Mouse; Antibody: Rabbit Anti-Mouse IL1RA Ab)
Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist (IL1RA), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148230)
Full Name
Active Interleukin 1 Receptor Antagonist (IL1RA)
Gene Names
Il1rn; IL-1ra; F630041P17Rik
Applications
Invitro Assay, Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>95%
Pricing
WB (Western Blot)
(Figure 4. Western Blot Sample: Recombinant TGF-Beta1, Human; Antibody: Rabbit Anti8Human TGF-Beta1 Ab)
Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 (TGFb1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148233)
Full Name
Active Transforming Growth Factor Beta 1 (TGFb1)
Gene Names
TGFB1; CED; LAP; DPD1; TGFB; TGFbeta
Applications
Activity Assay
Purity
>98%
Pricing
SDS-PAGE
Interleukin 1 Receptor Type I (IL1R1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148237)
Full Name
Active Interleukin 1 Receptor Type I (IL1R1)
Reactivity
Rat
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 97%
Pricing
SDS-PAGE
Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF), Active Protein (Cat# AAA148240)
Full Name
Active Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
Gene Names
EGF; URG; HOMG4
Reactivity
Human
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
> 90%
Pricing
Application Data
(Figure. TGF- inhibit cell proliferation of HepG2 cells.)
Transforming Growth Factor Beta 2, Active Protein (Cat# AAA150083)
Full Name
Active Transforming Growth Factor Beta 2 (TGFb2)
Gene Names
TGFB2; TGF-beta-2
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>90%
Pricing
Bioactivity
(Figure. The binding activity of LTF with CLU.Lactotransferrin (LTF), also known as actoferrin (LF), is a multifunctional protein of the transferrin family. Lactoferrin belongs to the innate immune system. Apart from its main biological function, namely binding and transport of iron ions, lactoferrin also has antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic, catalytic, anti-cancer, and anti-allergic functions and properties. LTF is widely represented in various secretory fluids, such as milk, saliva, tears, and nasal secretions. It also present in secondary granules of PMN and is secreted by some acinar cells. Besides, Clusterin (CLU) has been identified as an interactor of LTF, thus a binding ELISA assay was conducted to detect the interaction of recombinant goat LTF and recombinant goat CLU. Briefly, LTF were diluted serially in PBS, with 0.01% BSA (pH 7.4). Duplicate samples of 100uL were then transferred to CLU-coated microtiter wells and incubated for 2h at 37. Wells were washed with PBST and incubated for 1h with anti-LTF pAb, then aspirated and washed 3 times. After incubation with HRP labelled secondary antibody, wells were aspirated and washed 3 times. With the addition of substrate solution, wells were incubated 15-25 minutes at 37. Finally, add 50uL stop solution to the wells and read at 450nm immediately. The binding activity of LTF and CLU was shown in Figure 1, and this effect was in a dose dependent manner.)
Lactoferrin, Active Protein (Cat# AAA150100)
Full Name
Active Lactoferrin (LTF)
Applications
Activity Assay, Cell Culture
Purity
>97%
Pricing
CK2 alpha 2, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214348)
Full Name
Recombinant Human CK2 alpha 2 (N-GST tag)
Pricing
Application Data
GDNF, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214260)
Full Name
Recombinant Human GDNF
Gene Names
GDNF; ATF; ATF1; ATF2; HSCR3; HFB1-GDNF
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
4-1BB Receptor (TNFRSF9), Active Protein (Cat# AAA214261)
Full Name
Recombinant Human 4-1BB Receptor (TNFRSF9)
Gene Names
TNFRSF9; ILA; 4-1BB; CD137; CDw137
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
IL24, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214264)
Full Name
Recombinant Human IL24
Gene Names
IL24; C49A; FISP; MDA7; MOB5; ST16; IL10B
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
FGF8, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214272)
Full Name
Recombinant Human FGF8
Gene Names
FGF8; HH6; AIGF; KAL6; FGF-8; HBGF-8
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
Galectin-1 (LGALS1), Active Protein (Cat# AAA214275)
Full Name
Recombinant Human Galectin-1 (LGALS1)
Gene Names
LGALS1; GBP; GAL1
Reactivity
Human (H. sapiens)
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
Thymosin-Beta 4 (TMSB4X), Active Protein (Cat# AAA214284)
Full Name
Recombinant Human Thymosin-Beta 4 (TMSB4X)
Gene Names
TMSB4X; FX; TB4X; PTMB4; TMSB4
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
WNT1, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214289)
Full Name
Recombinant Human WNT1
Gene Names
WNT1; INT1; OI15; BMND16
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
Midkine (NEGF2), Active Protein (Cat# AAA214292)
Full Name
Recombinant Human Midkine (NEGF2)
Gene Names
MDK; MK; ARAP; NEGF2
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
Application Data
FGF18, Active Protein (Cat# AAA214296)
Full Name
Recombinant Human FGF18
Gene Names
FGF18; ZFGF5; FGF-18
Purity
>95% as determined by SDS-PAGE
Pricing
What Are Active Proteins?
Proteins are large molecules made up of long chains of amino acids.
They will typically fold into a very particular 3-dimensional shape/conformation, that is sometimes referred to as their “native” form, which allows them to work properly in the body. For the purposes of product categorization, AAA Biotech will typically refer to proteins purified from their original animal host as being “native” proteins (this is to signify their difference compared to their “recombinant” or “synthetic” protein counterparts).
If a protein successfully folds into the correct shape, it is will typically display high fidelity characteristics to its original protein in its original animal host, and be classified as an active protein, as it will be able to function “normally” in most enzymatic or binding capacities. If it loses this shape, due to factors such as heat or strong chemicals (such as detergents), it becomes inactive and is no longer able to perform its basic functions. All of the proteins in this category are made under strict quality control, and they are active, pure, low in contaminants, and stable.
Most are stored as freeze-dried powders and come without extra tags, so they’re very close to the actual natural/native form.
Key Applications of Active Proteins
1. Scientific Research
- Aid in the study of how proteins function in the body
- Aid in understanding various disease processes
2. Drug Development
- Powerful tools to investigate how potential drugs interact with specific proteins
- Ideal for identifying drug targets
3. Cell Culture
- Are routinely utilized to support cell growth and function (e.g., using exogenous growth factors)
- Can be used to promote cellular development into specific types (differentiation)
4. Diagnostics
- Regularly utilized in tests to detect diseases or infections (e.g., COVID-19, cancer)
- Note: All products are strictly for research-use only (RUO).
5. Therapeutics
- Some active proteins are used directly as treatments (e.g., insulin, enzymes)
- Note: All products are strictly for research-use only (RUO).
6. Vaccine Development
- Used to create or test vaccines by mimicking parts of viruses or bacteria
7. Biochemical Assays
- They can facilitate the characterization of enzyme activity, binding strength, or protein interactions in lab tests
Why Buy Active Proteins from AAA Biotech?
- High biological activity – Verified to perform as expected or indicated on datasheet
- Strict quality control – We are confident in our active proteins’ reliability and consistency
- High purity & low endotoxin – Ideal for applications involving sensitive or precious samples/components
- Freeze-dried for stability – Long shelf life and straightforward storage
- Mostly tag-free – Closer to natural/native protein form
FAQ
1. What are active proteins used for in research?
Active proteins are used primarily in the study of how proteins function, in characterizing/discovering drug interactions, supporting cell growth, running biochemical assays, and in development of diagnostics or therapeutics.
2. How are AAA Biotech's active proteins validated?
AAA Biotech’s active proteins are validated through strict quality control and functional assays to ensure they are properly folded and active. “Active”, though, can be an ambiguous term, so if a specific “activity” or “binding” capability of a protein is of crucial interest to you, please inquire with us prior to purchase, and we will provide further details on how the “Active” modifier was determined to be applicable.
3. Are these proteins tested for biological activity?
Yes, all active proteins from AAA Biotech are tested to confirm they have the expected biological activity before being offered for use. Though, said “biological activity” can be either “enzymatic”, “binding”, or both.